Homelessness and Marginalisation
Those without homes experience overlapping forms of deprivation and marginalisation.[1] While New Zealand has a universally accessible system of social welfare, and many NGOs committed to assisting people in need, homelessness persists in Auckland. Homelessness is experienced in four main forms: rough sleepers, those without shelter other than improvised dwellings; those in publicly provided temporary accommodation; those sharing accommodation; and those in uninhabitable housing.[2] Research into the history or evolution of homelessness in Auckland is scarce. However, there has been a shift from more punitive approaches to approaches that involve providing services and material goods to the homeless.[3] While this shift is positive, it still has not involved addressing the causes of homelessness. The rate of rough sleeping in Auckland is between 0.000448 and 0.000747%.[4] While the rate makes the problem sound small, it excludes those experiencing forms of homelessness other than rough sleeping. What data is available indicates that levels of homelessness have been reasonably consistent in Auckland over the last five years.[5]
Auckland’s Current Policy Position
Current homeless policy in Auckland sits between different levels and locations. New Zealand has a universal welfare system implemented by the national Government whereby people who cannot find work or are unable to work are eligible for some form of benefit.[6] While people must self-select for welfare and meet some requirements, there are few groups who would find themselves without access to income support from the national welfare system.[7] At current, no national-level policy specifically focused on homelessness exists.[8] Some aspects of homelessness fall under the jurisdiction of local government. The Local Government Act sets out the role of Auckland Council as to ‘enable democratic local decision-making and action, by, and on behalf of, communities; and to promote the social, economic, environment, and cultural well-being of communities’.[9] This suggests that while Auckland Council must promote the well being of citizens (and perhaps do nothing to the detriment of people’s well being) responsibility for people’s well being falls mainly on national government. However, as Auckland Council is charged with the guardianship of public spaces in Auckland, its bylaws affect rough sleepers. Bylaw no. 20, Public Places 2008 prohibits rough sleeping in public places: ‘except with the permission of an authorised officer, or a license from council, a person shall not, in, on, or over any public place… camp or sleep overnight, except in areas set aside by the council for that purpose…’[10] The Auckland Council then has responsibilities with respect to policing this bylaw. As a result, and perhaps due to concerns for the well-being of Auckland residents, it has connections with NGOs that try to address homelessness in Auckland.
Nonprofits and Auckland Council
The Auckland Council works with three main NGOs to provide services to and advocate for the needs of the homeless in Auckland: the Salvation Army, Lifewise, and the Auckland City Mission. These three organisations are party to the Memorandum of Understanding between organisations (governmental and non-governmental) involved with the homeless in Auckland.[11] All three provide services that aim to fulfill the material needs of the homeless. The Auckland City Mission aims to provide ‘unique and specialized health and social services to marginalized Aucklanders when they need it both.’[12] Similarly, Lifewise sees homelessness as a significant issue often miss-associated with personal choice.[13] In order to solve homelessness, Lifewise aims to assist people with the skills and assistance they need to live in accommodation.[14] The Salvation Army is motivated by the aim to show ‘practical concern and care for people without discrimination’.[15] The Salvation Army offers a range of services to those in need of assistance, including the homeless.[16] While there appears there would be no overt values clash between these three NGOs, they overlap in areas of resource and service provision. All services consider the wider needs of homeless people and attempt to assist them with the development of independence. They work with the Auckland Council, directed by the Memorandum of Understanding, and an interagency guide to addressing homelessness, to coordinate homeless services.[17] However, it could be that there is a better way of organising service provision.
Problems with the Current Arrangement
The current policy arrangement in Auckland has several key drawbacks. The system of organisation means that coordination between national government services and local services could be improved.[18] Steve Richards attributes this problem to a lack of clear responsibility for homelessness.[19] As a result, those at risk of homelessness are not assisted as they transition from agencies such as hospital or prison. Further, arrangements between the Auckland Council and non-governmental organisations focus on mitigating the effects of homelessness. Little real policy attention is given to the issues of homelessness beyond rough sleeping. This sees little concern for how homelessness can be prevented or intervened in to support people back into independent housing.
Policy also needs to respond to the particular needs of the homeless, based on their demographics. Part of this problem is associated with difficulties in accurately collecting data about the homeless, but it is known that homelessness disproportionately affects Māori.[21] As a result, Māori values and needs should be considered by policy that aims to address homelessness. An Interagency Response to End Rough Sleeping in Auckland city outlines a need to do so, but no thorough discussion of how this is to occur has been undertaken. Other demographic trends in homelessness should also be considered.
Meeting the Needs of the Homeless: A Capabilities Approach
In order to better respond to homelessness, all levels of actors should consider taking a capabilities approach to services and policies. A capabilities approach recognizes the importance of realizing key aspects of human functioning.[22] This would improve the quality of reactions to short and long-term needs. One clear example of this not being implemented can be seen in the Auckland Council’s decision with respect to how to respond to homelessness during the Rugby World Cup. As part of the preparation for international attention during the Rugby World Cup 2011, it was announced that the Auckland Council would fund efforts to ensure public safety. This involved funding the ‘security and support’ of the homeless – the bulk of which went to financing security guards to enforce public bylaws.[23] The Council’s focus then comes back to its role of overseeing the use of public spaces in Auckland. Other cities have experienced similar problems in times of increased international attention, and dealt with them by attempting to relocate the homeless.[24] Finding ways to facilitate coordinated responses to homelessness, using a capabilities approach, in the face of changing conditions would then allow New Zealand to become a leader in field of homelessness best practice.
[1] Richards, “Homelessness in Aotearoa: Issues and Recommendations,” 3.
[2] Statistics New Zealand, “New Zealand Definition of Homelessness,” (Wellington: Statistics New Zealand, 2009), 6-7.
[3] Penelope Laurenson and Damian Collins, “Beyond Punitive Regulation? New Zealand Local Governments’ Responses to Homelessness,” Antipode 39, no. 4 (2007): 650.
[4] This was calculated using the rate of homelessness found by the Gravitas report, and the population of Auckland given by the Auckland Council. See: Auckland Council, “About Auckland City,” Auckland Council, http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/auckland/introduction/city/default.asp; Groot et al., “Homeless Lives in New Zealand: The Case of Central Auckland.”
[5] Betty McLaren, “Homelessness in Auckland,” in Social and Community Development Forum (Auckland: Auckland Council, 2011), 40.
[6] New Zealand Government, “Social Security Act,” in 136 (New Zealand: New Zealand Government, 1964), 20-21.
[7] In order for people to receive this support they must go through an application process which includes completing an application form and submitting any evidence required (for example, a medical certificate may be required). These claims are then investigated by the chief executive or an officer of the Department acting on the authority of the chief executive. If this process is likely to be lengthy, a benefit can be granted as if retroactively where it seems clear the claimant will be eligible for the benefit. In order to determine eligibility, it is required that applicants must answer all questions put to them by the chief executive of Work and Income, relating to their use of the benefit, their earning capacity, and economic circumstances. Benefit fraud prosecution can result in prison sentencing and penalties which then result in people being cut off or severely restricted in terms of their access to the benefit. See: Ibid., 71-73.
[8] This report was authored prior to the November 2011 New Zealand General Election. Moving into the campaign period, homelessness is beginning to be considered a national-level problem.
[9] New Zealand Government, “Local Government Act 2002,” (2002), 31.
[10] Auckland Council, “Bylaw No. 20 – Public Places 2008,” Auckland Council, http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/council/documents/bylaw/part20.asp.
[11] Auckland Homeless Steering Group, “Memorandum of Understanding: An Interagency Approach for Ending Rough Sleeping in Auckland City,” (Auckland: Auckland Council, approx. 2010).
[12] This involves assisting homeless and others in need through the provision of food, clothes, bedding, and assisting people in finding long-term solutions to the problems they are facing. Work with the homeless has included providing accommodation, social interaction, and skills development, as well as food and other physical needs. See: Auckland City Mission, “Vision and Values,” Auckland City Mission, http://www.aucklandcitymission.org.nz/vision_and_values_site_info.html?mID=35.
[13] Lifewise, “The Issue,” Lifewise, http://www.lifewise.org.nz/about-lifewise/our-services/the-lifewise-hub/the-issue.
[14] To help the homeless, Lifewise provides a hub that combines services including assistance with finding accommodation (with permanent housing as the long-term goal), access to support services, access to purposeful activities that involve engaging with a community and access to food and other basic needs. See: Ibid.
[15] The Salvation Army, “Faqs: General Salvation Army Information,” The Salvation Army, http://salvationarmy.org.nz/contact-us/faqs/
[16] Its accommodation services are targeted at those without shelter. Salvcation Army hostels are available to those in need of shelter and combine accommodation with medical and health care, budget advice and counselling, chapel services, recreational activities, job-search assistance and computer skills. See: ———, “Hostels,” The Salvation Army, http://www.salvationarmy.org.nz/here-to-help/accommodation/hostels/.
[17] The MOU outlines the key goals and actions for its parties, and sets out how relationships between organizations should work. It states that parties agree to work together in good faith and should respect each other’s contributions to reduce and end homelessness. Clear communication channels should be established that enable data to be shared and clarification to be sought when necessary. Regular meeting will occur to discuss and consider policy initiatives. Consultation and communication are stressed. The Steering Group has a complimentary group set out to operationalise strategy, called the Homeless Taskforce Group. This group aids the collaboration of organizations in order to streamline services. See: Auckland Homeless Steering Group, “Memorandum of Understanding: An Interagency Approach for Ending Rough Sleeping in Auckland City,” (Auckland: Auckland Council, approx. 2010); Auckland Council, “An Interagency Response to End Rough Sleeping in Auckland City: A Practice Guide,” (Auckland: Auckland Council, 2009).
[18] Richards, “Homelessness in Aotearoa: Issues and Recommendations,” 12, 16-17.
[19] Ibid., 16-17.
[20] Auckland Homeless Steering Group, “Memorandum of Understanding: An Interagency Approach for Ending Rough Sleeping in Auckland City,” 2.
[21] Some work has been undertaken by the Auckland Council to identify the demographics of Auckland’s homeless. However, See: McLaren, “Homelessness in Auckland.”; Richards, “Homelessness in Aotearoa: Issues and Recommendations,” 11,28.
[22] Martha Craven Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice : Disability, Nationality, Species Membership, The Tanner Lectures on Human Values (Cambridge, MA; London: Harvard University Press; Belknap, 2006), 75-77.
[23] Auckland Council, “Homeless Support During Rugby World Cup in Auckland.”
[24] For example, policies were implemented to evict the homeless from key public areas during both the Beijing Olympics in 2008, and the FIFA World Cup in South Africa in 2010. Similar policies may be used during future sports tournaments or similar international events. This work may then help provide a best practice guide creating and implementing policies regarding the treatment of homeless during such events in the future. See: Sky Canaves, “Beijing’s Olympic Cleanup Sends Migrants and Homeless Packing,” in The Wall Street Journal (The Wall Street Journal Digital network, 2008); Anders Kelto, “South Africa Hides Its Homeless Ahead of World Cup,” NPR: National Public Radio(2010), http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=127593697.